The Dual Edge of Modernization: Meiji Japan’s Defensive Modernization Was Paid for by its People’s Sacrifices

When Commodore Perry forced Japan to open trade in 1853, he also pushed the nation to modernize in order to protect itself from colonial rule. During the Tokugawa era of 1603-1867, Japan allowed very little interaction with the West, only trading with the Dutch. Commodore Perry’s warships convinced Japan’s leadership, the shogunate, to agree to America’s terms, having just witnessed China during the Opium Wars. However, submitting to the United State’s demands was as politically damaging and humiliating for the shogunate as losing a war. A group of young samurai took advantage of the situation and overthrew the shogunate in 1868, setting forth the Meiji Restoration by putting the emperor back on the throne. The emperor and his advisors immediately set out to protect Japan by pursuing a defensive modernization strategy. Meiji Japan achieved its goal of defensive modernization by fostering national unity and embracing Western military technology and culture; however, prioritizing the collective strength of the nation resulted in increased poverty and a substantial sacrifice of life in war, along with the neglect of traditional Japanese culture.

To achieve defensive modernization, Japan first unified the country under one common purpose by using the Western idea of military conscription. In 1872, Japanese politician and general Yamagata Aritomo announced the creation of a military draft in Japan in Opinion on Military Affairs and Conscription, stating “It is, in short, the basis of uniting the farmer and the soldier into one… there is no distinction between them in their obligations to the senate.” Aritomo used ideas of equality to imply that everybody needed to sacrifice their fair share for the greater good of the country. As it states, they are equal “in their obligations to the senate.” This unification of the people was repeated in Japan’s Charter Oath of 1868. It stated, “all classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out the administration of affairs of state.” Japanese government not only said everyone needed to come together, regardless of societal status but also needed to show patriotism and to fight for their country. Japan tried to implant these new ideals into the next generation using the Imperial Rescript of 1890, which asked schoolchildren every day to praise their “broad and everlasting” country and hope “that we may all attain the same virtue.” Collectivism and loyalty became common ideas in Japan, as this was evident even in large companies. During Mitsubishi’s, one of Japan’s important industrial companies, competition for coast trading dominance with the British, its founder, Yataro Iwasaki asked its workers for pay cuts and firings to help Japan and not the company to win. Yataro asks for this support in his 1876 letter to employees: “Through our own efforts, we shall be able to repay the government for its protection and answer our nation for its confidence shown in us.” In the letter, Yataro implied that everyone has a duty to one’s country, similar to Aritomo’s idea of obligation to the state also appeared in Aritomo’s military conscription announcement. Through these actions, Japan mobilized its population to fight as soldiers through conscription and patriotism and to sacrifice for their country. While having soldiers and a motivated workforce was important, Japan also needed modern weaponry for its growing military.

To strengthen its military’s weaponry, Japan had to modernize using Western technology funded by the Industrialization Program also inspired by Western society. The program was extremely expensive and required additional taxation from the people to fund it. Again, Japan asked its population to sacrifice for its country. The successful implementation of the Industrialization Program enabled Japan to produce industrial products domestically and create modern infrastructure by building railroads, a national postal service, a national currency, and a banking system. With these new advancements, Japan could produce its own military weapons and industrial goods, vastly increasing its military power, wealth, and ability to trade.. The impacts of these changes are very evident in the prime minister’s writing, stating, “Comparing the Japan of fifty years ago with the Japan of today… she has gained considerably in the extent of her territory as well as population… her import and export trades together amounted in 1907 to the enormous sum of 926,000,000 yen.”  Japan’s growth of wealth and infrastructure allowed the country to manufacture modern arms and ships. Japan at this point had a strong Western-style military.

Japan was extremely successful in its defensive modernization, becoming a regional power. Japan wanted to remain independent and free from colonial control. It did better than that. The new Japanese army was able to convincingly defeat Russia, one of the strongest Western nations in the world in the 1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War, over rival imperial ambitions in Korea and Manchuria. It became the first Asian state to defeat a major European power. It even became a colonial power establishing colonies across Asia. Japan owed its success to its industrialization, the acceptance of Western culture, and the implementation of military conscription.

However, Japan’s focus on national strength over individuals had significant costs to its people due to the need for labor and funds. It impoverished many farmers; many were forced to fight for the country; and embracing Western culture eroded traditional Japanese culture. The industrialization and wars fought by Japan required massive amounts of taxation and labor. A Japanese farmer complained “I would work  day after day, and yet my condition did not improve at all.” Many peasants went into an endless cycle of debt, unable to pay the increased taxes with their low wages. Not surprisingly, the Japanese were unhappy about the new taxes. A cartoon from Tokyo Puck by Kanagaki, states "Everyone got the War Reward (The nation got the reward of the tax increase laws)." The cartoon highlights what the people were feeling, especially the lower class. Their hard work and sacrifice were “rewarded” with taxes, poverty, and debt. On the military side, the Japanese had to pay what the military draft of 1872 called a “blood tax.” This blood tax was in the payment of the Japanese people’s lifeblood to the country. “When the State suffers disaster, the people cannot escape being affected.” In embracing Western ideas, to speed up the industrialization and modernization of Japan, traditional Japanese culture eroded. Another cartoon in the 1870s portrayed the Western man as an “enlightened man” while characterizing the traditional Japanese samurai as unenlightened. However, not everyone was ready to give up Japanese traditions even for gain as shown in Etsu Sagamoto’s personal experience. Sagamoto’s grandma defiantly says, “I would rather not grow as strong as a Westerner– nor as clever.” “It is more becoming for me to follow the path of our ancestors.” The grandma is one of many Japanese who still value the traditional Japanese culture that was disappearing from the modernization of Japan.

Overall, Japan achieved its goal of defending itself from colonization through modernization, but this success overshadows the cost to the people of Japan. Farmers were pushed into poverty, many were forced into war, and their traditional culture diminished. Using Western technology and culture, they were able to drastically increase their military, wealth, and unity. However, the same army, infrastructure, and innovations used for Japan’s success required the heavy taxation and labor of the people, particularly lower-class citizens. In addition, cultural loss occurred when swapping to Western ideals. Industrial revolutions have greatly improved modern-day life and standards of living but they often come at a significant cost. The welfare of individual citizens and the traditions of the country are sacrificed for the greater goal of national advancement.