From the 1860s to the 1890s, America’s rise as an industrial power characterized it as a country full of opportunity and demanding a growing labor force. As a result, international movement to the American West rose, and Chinese immigrants arrived in the United States in larger and larger numbers. These immigrants found employment by mining during the gold rush, building the Transcontinental railroad, or working in other emerging industries. While Chinese immigrants were granted some economic opportunity in the United States during the late nineteenth century, their experiences reveal that their chances at success were still limited by discrimination, exploitation, and legislation. Therefore, while the United States was perceived as a land of opportunity, it presented Chinese immigrants with a constrained and hostile environment rather than a gateway to upward mobility.
The Chinese were essential in assisting with the rapid growth of American commerce, trade, and migration. In the early-to-mid 1800s, Chinese immigrants began to seek work opportunities in the United States and escape the weak Chinese economy, which left widespread poverty. After hearing about the California Gold Rush of 1849, thousands of Chinese men looked to strike it rich by taking jobs in Western gold fields. After some time, the gold rush declined, and Chinese immigrants turned toward the railroad industry to construct the Transcontinental railroad. Eventually, Chinese immigrants made up as much as 90% of some railroad companies. This propelled the American economy during the Gilded Age.
In addition to railroad construction, Chinese immigrants worked in industries including agriculture, manufacturing, domestic services, and fishing. In American agriculture, Chinese immigrants cultivated crops, harvested produce, and processed fruits and vegetables. In American manufacturing, Chinese workers were typically employed as assembly line workers in garmentmaking, leatherworking, and furniture production. In the domestic services industry, Chinese immigrants established laundries in cities across the United States, one of the most stable income opportunities for Chinese immigrants. In the fishing industry, Chinese laborers worked to help clean and pack fish, especially in cities like Seattle and Portland.
Despite the importance of Chinese workers in American industrial expansion, their experience was filled with power imbalances and prejudice. Chinese workers received little pay compared to their white counterparts, weren’t provided with food and shelter, and were often subject to unsafe working conditions. Their labor contracts were manipulated, and attempts to organize for better conditions were met with resistance. The success of Chinese laborers also did not translate into more social acceptance or legal protections. Anti-Chinese sentiment rose as the labor market tightened after the railroad’s completion. Heightened competition for jobs meant white labor unions and politicians would publicly scapegoat the Chinese for economic instability and wage suppression. This hostility later led to the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, the first U.S. federal law specifically aimed at restricting the immigration of a specific ethnic group. This legislation not only halted the flow of new Chinese immigrants but also demonized existing Chinese communities, making it more difficult for them to integrate into American society.
The Chinese Exclusion Act suspended Chinese immigration for ten years but also placed severe limitations on Chinese communities already in the United States. For example, Chinese immigrants weren’t able to become naturalized citizens, which denied them political and social rights. Also driven by economic competition and racial prejudice, racialized labor conflicts became prevalent and took hold of the country. With xenophobic viewpoints legitimized by the Chinese Exclusion Act, these acts of violence included the 1885 anti-Chinese riot in Rock Springs, Wyoming, and the 1886 massacre in Seattle. The government granted little protection.
In conclusion, Chinese immigrants played an essential role in the industrial growth of the United States between the 1860s and the 1890s. Despite their work, though, the Chinese immigrants’ experiences reveal broader themes of discrimination and labor exploitation. The opportunities that Chinese immigrants thought the United States granted were largely inaccessible because of nativist perspectives and the nation’s refusal to treat Chinese immigrants equally. Events like the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the reoccurrence of racialized violence left Chinese immigrants excluded from the political and social landscape. Overall, the Chinese immigrant experience during this period exposed the underlying truth behind America’s facade of opportunity, illustrating that the nation was far from a welcoming gateway to prosperity for all.
Cover Image From: https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/chinese-exclusion-act-trailer/
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