The Communist Divide: The Sino-Soviet Split and the Fall of the USSR

From 1945 to 1991, the Cold War pitted the United States against the Soviet Union in a global struggle for ideological and geopolitical dominance after the end of World War II. While the Cold War had no direct conflict between the U.S. and the USSR because of the constant threat of nuclear warfare, many battles were fought in the form of proxy wars, economic warfare, technology races, ideological pressures, and diplomatic isolation. However, amid this battle of superpowers, an important but often overlooked aspect of the United States' eventual victory was the unexpected divide in the Communist Party between the Soviet Union and China. Due to growing ideological differences, the Sino-Soviet split fractured communist alliances and overextended the Soviet military, laying the groundwork for economic stagnation. However, it was Gorbachev’s reforms of economic restructuring and political openness that failed to fix the Soviet economy and exposed Soviet failings, which sparked unrest, that ultimately led to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the United States’ victory in the Cold War.

Nikita Khrushchev, Joseph Stalin’s successor, brought a progressive view of communism that embraced coexistence with the West. This philosophy created a schism between the USSR and the rest of the communist world, notably China. The leader of the Chinese Communist Party, Mao Zedong, was enraged by Khrushchev’s claims, who argued that Khrushchev was too revisionist and supported capitalism. Tensions would escalate further as Khrushchev refused to provide China with the nuclear weapons that they had expected to receive. Khrushchev did not want to arm a potential adversary and feared that China, due to its hardline approach, would not back down in the face of nuclear conflict. Simultaneously, Mao was eager to grow China’s influence and replace the Soviet Union as the face of global communism. Countries like North Korea and Vietnam ultimately sided with China’s more militant and agrarian-based interpretation of communism, whereas much of Eastern Europe still sided with the Soviet model of peaceful co-existence and centralized control. This split of the communist world reduced the Soviet Union’s soft power and influence.

The split world forced the Soviets to commit precious resources to fight both direct and proxy wars against fellow communist states. In 1969, the conflict between the Soviet Union and China escalated into fighting at the border. Both countries stationed hundreds of thousands of troops along the border for years, requiring massive military investment by both sides. The dispute with China drained much of the USSR’s military resources, diverting them away from larger threats like the U.S.. To keep up with the competition, the Soviet Union was forced to invest even more of its nation’s wealth into military spending, pressuring its economy. Sino-Soviet clashes also broke out in proxy wars, a prime example being in Afghanistan from 1979 to 1989. Soviet troops fought in a costly war against the mujahideen, backed by both the U.S. and China. As a result, by 1980, military conflicts ended up costing the Soviet Union nearly one-third of its gross national product. 

The vast resources devoted to military conflicts and the struggle for influence led to economic stagnation, lowering living conditions that fueled social unrest. The large military spending came at the cost of the production of common consumer goods, like clothing, household appliances, and food. The shortage of consumer goods led to inflation, which further lowered the living standards of the lower and middle socioeconomic classes. Moreover, the Soviet Union continued to lose trading partners that could have helped boost its economy. By the 1980s, modern communication technology like the TV and radio confirmed the poor living standards of the citizens of the Soviet Union compared to those in other nations, especially the U.S. This awareness intensified the dissatisfaction and eroded faith in the Soviet Union. The economic crisis was also worsened by the demoralization of the working class, dramatically increasing the rate of alcoholism and drug use. Low morale from bad living conditions and the use of drugs further stifled productivity. Overall, the Sino-Soviet conflict put the Soviet Union’s economy in a very weak and vulnerable position, leading to unrest among the Soviet citizens.

Though the Sino-Soviet split weakened the Soviet Union, it was Gorbachev’s failed internal reforms that accelerated the dissolution of the USSR. In an attempt to save the Soviet Union’s declining economy, the new leader of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev, implemented the reform program, Perestroika, in 1985. Perestroika intended to move the USSR away from a centrally planned economy by promoting small businesses and granting businesses greater autonomy.  Though well-intended, Perestroika was not effective as these reforms were not consistently implemented, making the Soviet economy ineffective as both a capitalist and a communist economy. Realizing that Perestroika was not working, Gorbachev expanded beyond economic reforms, most notably, his implementation of Glasnost in 1986. Glasnost, meaning openness, loosened censorship and allowed public criticism of the government to try to instill trust in the government and allow for more reforms directly asked for by the people. Glasnost backfired by revealing the USSR’s many systematic failures, like the poor living standards and the widespread corruption among party officials. Without any meaningful policy reforms, public anger deepened, and people pushed for more political freedoms, openly attacking the Communist Party and demanding change. Eventually, this public anger culminated in several non-Russian republics declaring independence. 

While the Sino-Soviet split played a significant role in the downfall of the Soviet Union by stagnating its economy, sparking unrest, it was Gorbachev’s reforms that amplified these crises beyond repair, delivering the final blow that made the collapse of the Soviet Union inevitable. It was not concluded with a decisive military victory, but with the internal struggle of one of its major powers,  proving that superpowers can fall from the weight of their own failures and division, not just the military might of their enemies.

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